Learning English the Natural Way

If you’re feeling frustrated by all the complex rules of the English language or the mountains of vocabulary words you think you’re supposed to understand, don’t worry. The truth is that most native English speakers couldn’t explain all those rules to you if they tried, and most of the advanced grammar they learned went out the window after finishing the SAT, ACT or other high school exam. When you’re trying to learn English, stop worrying so much about the rules and focus on learning the natural way.

What do I mean by the natural way? Well, think about the way that a small child learns a language. They don’t sit down with an English language dictionary and start memorizing flash cards as soon as they’re able to speak – instead, they learn naturally through the process of immersion. The process of immersion involves surrounding yourself completely with the new language until you start to pick up the bits and pieces that will eventually form your comprehension of the language.

There are several benefits to learning by immersion. Your sentence structure and pronunciations won’t be as stiff and forced as the people who learn English using traditional home study guides, since you’ll be picking up these elements from real native speakers. In addition, you won’t experience the frustration that many English language students feel trying to work out the language on their own. Consequently, you’ll be less likely to give up, and more likely to reap the benefits of speaking English.

But how do you begin to study language naturally? You don’t need to pack up and go live with a host family like so many college kids do. Instead, all you need to do is to spend time in public places where people speak English. Consider the following locations:

Grocery Store – As you do your weekly grocery shopping, try to listen to the conversations going on around you. In addition to getting a feel for how the language is spoken, you’ll also pick up many helpful words for food and beverage items.
Hair Salon/Barbershop – For some reason, Americans love to talk to the people trimming their hair, so going in for your own haircut can be an educational experience in the number of conversations you’ll hear.
Church/Fitness Centers/Golf Courses – Any of these locations that encourage groups of people to get together can provide you with many opportunities to listen to and participate in conversations on things you already enjoy. Check online or in your local phonebook for places that interest you.

If you aren’t yet comfortable conversing with groups of native English speakers, you can also immerse yourself in English language books and magazines. If you have a favorite book in your native language, pick up an English copy and compare the two. Read everything you can get your hands on and take notes on words or phrases you don’t understand. As you look them up, practice speaking them out loud and try to form sentences using the new words. With time, the process of immersion will improve your comprehension and speaking ability, until you feel fully fluent in the English language.

Some Fun Ways to Practice Reading English

Even if you do not live in a country where English is a primary language, you can take advantage of many opportunities to practice reading in English. As you progress with your studies, you will come to appreciate the richness and variety of styles that individuals will use to express themselves. As with your own language, you are likely to find that you will prefer the way one author writes over others. By taking advantage of a wide variety of sources, you will also gain some insight into the boundaries that define expression of thoughts and concepts.

Reading Classic Books Online

If you have never had a chance to read the works of Dickens, Poe, or other classical English writers, you can find some of their works for free online. Among other things, you can download entire novels from Project Gutenberg. You may also want to browse the internet and look for critical reviews of classical materials. This will help give you some insight into the materials you have just read, and also provide an opportunity to see if others interpret the materials in the same way.

Purchasing Books on Topics of Interest

If you are not interested in classical literature, perhaps it does not make much sense to force yourself to read these materials. Fortunately, there are millions of books written in English. As an example, if you enjoy water color painting, you may want to purchase a book about it written in English. In many cases, you will be able to locate and purchase books for just a few cents per book.

Subscribe to Internet Newsletters

Chances are, if there is a hobby you are interested in, there are authors writing newsletters about it in English. If you search the web, it should be fairly easy to locate websites that sponsor free newsletters. These newsletters are ideal, in part because they provide you with fresh and contemporary reading materials. In addition, because they are about a topic that you already know something about, you will be able to appreciate the information that is shared, as well as practice your reading skills.

Read News Articles in English

Unlike years ago, you can have access to news in English whenever you want. If you are interested in particular area of the world, you may even want to dedicate your reading time to those sections of the news. In most cases, you can find free news resources on the internet. These may also be an excellent place for you to find the names of other websites that have additional information that you might be interested in.

Over the years, the internet has created a tremendous amount of access to materials written in English. If you want to have fun and improve your reading skills at the same time, these can provide you with hours of interesting materials to practice on. In the process, you may even uncover new information about a hobby, or meet people from around the world that share your interests.

Using a Thesaurus to Learn English

As you may be aware, a thesaurus is a tool that provides lists of words that have similar meanings. For example, an entry for the word “happy” might have listings for synonyms like “joyful,” “giddy,” or “gleeful.” Even though many people trying to learn English purchase a thesaurus, they rarely use it to its full potential. Unfortunately, doing so denies you a number of opportunities to improve your English language skills and vocabulary. Read on for more tips about improving your English with a thesaurus:

Improve your vocabulary

Becoming a natural sounding English speaker means using more than simple words in conversation. On the other hand, using large or complicated-sounding words that aren’t used in conversational language by native English speakers won’t help you either. A thesaurus can help you find the right words for every occasion. In addition, if you take note of the words that native speakers use regularly, you may be able to form a pattern of varying synonyms that makes your vocabulary seem more natural.

Work around difficult verbs and phrases

In many cases, you’ll know when a word or phrase isn’t correct. However, you may be unable to formulate a response that conveys your meaning using natural sounding English. This happens to ESL speakers most often when using irregular verbs and verb tenses. If you’re having trouble coming up with a response, look up the word you want to use in a thesaurus and you may find a common equivalent that follows the rules and makes sense. As you develop more of these workarounds, you’ll be able to observe how others use the English language and become a more fluent speaker yourself.

Practice sounding out words with similar meanings

Regardless of how many years you’ve spoken English or how advanced your language skills are, you may always have an accent. Even though there are many dialects of English, you may feel self conscious about pronouncing certain words in front of groups. By looking through a thesaurus, you may be able to finds words similar to ones that you have difficulty verbalizing that you can use instead.

Improve comprehension

As you become more advanced in your English language practice, you can take sentences and try adding new words from a thesaurus. This will help you practice everything from verb tenses to creating a specific style of expression. As you read the new sentence, you’ll gain new insights into possible meanings and see how sentences need to be changed to accommodate different words. This will help you identify stylistic differences as well as subtle changes in meaning. You may even find that you can improve your grammar skills much more quickly this way.

If you are trying to learn English, you’ll probably use the dictionary more than a thesaurus. While a dictionary is a valuable tool, it won’t do as much to help you learn a broad range of words that have similar meanings as a thesaurus will. Once you begin working with a thesaurus, you’ll find that you can convey your meanings more accurately and better distinguish the more subtle elements of the English language.

English Grammar Components

When you’re learning the English language, you may feel overwhelmed when it comes to all the different grammar components. There are so many variables that affect the choice of words, even in everyday conversations. In order to get the most from your English lessons, you’ll need to understand all the different grammatical elements that are used. The following is a listing of some of the most commonly used English grammar components and what each one means.

Pronouns: Personal pronouns will often take the place of a person’s name. There are four different cases of personal pronouns: subjective, objective, genitive, and possessive. Pronouns may also have number, person, or gender attributes. Here are some examples:

Subjective: These are pronouns that are used in the subject of the sentence and include “I,” “you,” “he,” “she,” “it,” “we,” “you,” and “they.” An example of a subjective pronoun used in a sentence is, “I have a book.” In this case, “I” is the subject of the sentence and has taken the place of the speaker’s name.

Objective: These are words that are used as the object of the sentence and include “me,” “you,” “him,” “her,” “us,” “you,” and “them.” An example of an objective pronoun used in a sentence is, “Give her the book.” In this case, “her” is the object of the sentence.

Genitive: These are words that generally used to modify noun phrases. This type of pronoun is also called an “attributive possessive pronoun.” These pronouns include “my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “our,” and “their.” An example of a possessive adjective is, “This is your book.” In this case, “your” demonstrates ownership of the book without actually giving the name of the owner.

Possessive: These pronouns occur in the object of the sentence and include “mine,” “yours,” “his,” and “hers.” An example of a possessive pronoun is, “This book is ours.” In this case, “ours” shows a more detailed point of ownership of the book.

Participles: Participles are verbs that are used as adjectives and commonly end in “–ed” or “–ing.” A participle expresses a deed or state of action. Since participles are used as verbs, they usually end up modifying nouns and pronouns. The following are two examples of participles in action:

“The crying baby woke up.”
“The burning wood smells good.”

Past participles usually end in “–en,” “-ed,” “-d,” “-t,” and “-n.”

Prepositions: These are words that are used to link one part of a sentence to another. Here’s an example: “The dog slept on the floor.” The preposition in the sentence is the word “on,” which connects the dog to the floor.

Verbs: Verbs are action words. In the sentence, “I caught the ball,” the verb is the word “caught.” Many of these verbs will be spoken, written, and read differently, depending on the choice of nouns or pronouns. If you’re ever stumped, try speaking with someone who is fluent in English. While they may not be able to tell you “why” something is wrong, they can tell you the correct way to conjugate different verb tenses.

It’s not as difficult as you may think to learn English grammar; however, it will take dedication and patience. It’s best to set aside a specific time each day to study – if not, it’s easy to become frustrated and quit.

Differences Between British and American English

If you’ve ever spoken with a British person or visited the United Kingdom, you’ve probably noticed that, although we’re speaking the same language, there are some pretty significant differences between American English and British English. The British colonization of America in the 17th century brought the English language to North America, although the language has since evolved into two separate dialects – American English and British English. When looking at these two dialects, you’ll see some significant differences in how they spell their words, the pronunciation that is used, and variances of grammar between them.

Apart from these differences, you’ll also find that some words have totally different meanings between the two versions of English. There are some words that one dialect may use that the other may not – for example, what Americans call an “apartment,” a British citizen would call a “flat.” Noah Webster set out to highlight these differences and prove that the United States spoke a different language than the British, resulting in what is now known as the American Directory. Although American English and British English share many similarities, you may find yourself confused by the difference in the meanings of some of the words.

The following is a list of common American English to British English translations (courtesy of the Georgia State University website):

American British Argument Row Baby carriage Pram Band-aid Plaster Bathroom Loo or WC Can Tin Chopped beef Mince Cookie Biscuit Corn Maize Diaper Nappy Elevator Lift Eraser Rubber Flashlight Torch Fries Chips Gas Petrol Guy Bloke or chap Highway Motorway Hood (car) Bonnet Jello Jelly Jelly Jam Kerosene Paraffin Lawyer Solicitor License plate Number plate Line Queue Mail Post Motor home Caravan Movie theater Cinema Muffler Silencer Napkin Serviette Nothing Nought Overpass Flyover Pacifier Dummy Pant Trouser Parking lot Car park Period Full stop Pharmacist Chemist Potato chips Crisps Sausage Banger Sidewalk Pavement Soccer Football Sweater Jumper Trash can Bin Truck Lorry Trunk (car) Boot Vacation Holiday Vest Waistcoat Windshield (car) Windscreen Zip code Postal code

In addition to these differences in vocabulary, there are several changes to grammatical rules as well. In British English, collective nouns can take either singular or plural verb forms, while this is not the case in American English. In American English, collective nouns are used in singular verb form using plural pronouns at times for agreement. For example, in British English, the irregular form of a verb is commonly used as in the words “learnt and spoilt”, while in American English, irregular verb forms are generally not used.

If you’re planning a trip to the United Kingdom in the near future, you might find it helpful to study some of these differences before leaving. Even if you aren’t familiar with British English, you’ll still be able to make yourself understood speaking American English – unlike traveling to a country that speaks Spanish or another foreign language. However, knowing these differences will help to minimize confusion while abroad, leading to a much more enjoyable travel experience.

Different Types of Resumes

There are a few different types of resumes. It is best to choose the type of resume based on the type of job you are applying for, and the type of experience and your skills.

Chronological Resume - The chronological resume is the most common type of resume. The chronological resume emphasis your experience and education.

Functional Resume - The functional resume is a resume that emphasizes your skill and ability.

Combination Resume - The Combination resume emphasis your experience and skills.

Curriculum Vitae -CV's - The Curriculum Vitae a specific type of resume that is used only for certain positions and industries. The Curriculum Vitae gives detailed information about your skills and qualifications.

Resume Tips

1. Make sure that it is clearly stated how to contact you. Your e-mail (that you check often), mobile phone (that is open most of the time) home phone (if you have an answering machine make sure you check it often), should be easy to find, and bolded.

2. Check for spelling mistakes, don't rely only on your computers spell checker.

3. Make your words count. Make sure you use strong wording to describe yourself. Don't be too modest.

4. Try to figure out for the ad/advertisment what the employer is looking for. Try to change a few words to custom fit the resume to the job ad.

5. When you state your work experience, state a problem that existed at your old workplace, and state how you were able to solve it. Don't be shy.

6. Don't make your resume too long. 1-2 pages is good for most people.

7. Clearly state your information, don't babble on, and on.

8. It is a good idea, if you are worried that you are to old to get hired, then only state the last 10 to 15 years of your work experience. That way the employer doesn't know how long you have been in the job market.

9. Don't list your personal hobbies, unless it is directly related to the job that you are applying for.

10. It is a good idea to state your profession on the top of your resumes, in dark letters so the employer can see that you do fit the job.

11. Don't lie on your resume, but you can highlight all your skills' and abilities'.

12. Don't state anything negative on your resume.

Puzzling Plurals Part 3

Criteria

Don’t Say: Sense of humor was her only criteria in choosing a man.
Say Instead: Sense of humor was her only criterion in choosing a man.

Here’s Why: “Criteria” is the plural of “criterion,” a word of Greek origin that means “standard” or “measure.” In this sentence, the woman has only one measure by which she judges men acceptable or not, so we should use the singular “criterion,” and wish her the best of luck. Separately, remember to use a plural verb whenever “criteria” is your subject. For example, it’s the criteria are and not the criteria is. Additional correct examples are:

The snooty club’s board of directors established a list of 60 criteria for membership. He’s such a simple man that his criterion for happiness is having enough ice for his soda. Julie asked what the opera company’s criteria were for screening chorus members.
Is looking good in red really a fair criterion for this job?


Phenomena

Don’t Say: Incredible phenomenons happen all around us every day if you know where to look.
Say Instead: Incredible phenomena happen all around us every day if you know where to look.

Here’s Why: “Phenomenon,” which also comes to us from Greek, means an event that is observed through the senses rather than by thought. The plural form is “phenomena” not “phenomenons.”


Memoranda

Don’t Say: I typed memorandums today until my fingers cramped up.
Say Instead: I typed memoranda today until my fingers cramped up.

Here’s Why: Okay, so you probably don’t use the full word every day; you just say “memo” or “memos” instead. And that’s fine. But when you do use the full word, remember that the plural form of “memorandum” is not “memorandums,” it’s “memoranda.”

Puzzling Plurals Part 2

Data

Don’t Say: The data shows our plans have failed.
Say Instead: The data show our plans have failed.
Here’s Why: “Data” and “datum” work just like “media” and “medium.” The “a” ending is plural; the “um” ending is singular. The only difference between the two examples maybe this: The use of “data” as a singular goes down a little easier with usage experts than the use of “media” as a singular. And that’s because facts often seem to travel in packs—so scientists and researchers typically think of data as a collective term. The bottom line is this: You’ll always be correct if you treat data as a plural. But when your meaning is focused more on the string of facts taken together as a group, using “data” with a singular verb won’t get you thrown in jail. It’s a judgment call. Here are addi¬tional correct examples of the plural sense of “data”:

The data are inconclusive, so we’ll need another study.

The data indicate that Ellen’s hypothesis was right.

The new data make the previous research obsolete.


Alumni

Don’t Say: Jim and Judy are both Michigan alumnis.
Say Instead: Jim and Judy are both Michigan alumni.

Here’s Why: Another term from Latin: This one has sev¬eral forms you should know. One male graduate is an “alum¬nus.” Two or more male graduates are “alumni,” pronounced with a long “i,” and never, ever, with an “s” at the end, as in the incorrect example. Two or more graduates of different sexes are also called “alumni,” as in our corrected example. One female graduate is called an “alumna,” and two female gradu¬ates are referred to as “alumnae,” spelled with an “ae” at the end, but rhyming with “knee.” An example of each are:

Geraldine is an alumna of Grinnell College.

Lucy and Beth are Sarah Lawrence alumnae.

Don is an alumnus of Lincoln High.

Joe and Fred are alumni but they don’t donate money to the school.

Stacy and John are both alumni, but she’s the only one going to the reunion.

Puzzling Plurals Part 1

We do a good job using the correct singular and plural forms of most nouns, because the process isn’t tricky; you just add an “s” or an “es” or an “ies” to make the plural form. But a few words that come to us from Latin and Greek don’t follow the normal pattern. As a result, their singular and plural forms are often confused or unknown.


Media

Don’t Say: The media is protected by the first amendment.
Say Instead: The media are protected by the first amendment.

Here’s Why: It hardly seems fair that a dead language causes trouble for us in English. “Media” is plural, of Latin origin, referring to a group of vehicles through which ideas are communicated. The singular form is “medium.” So in the ex¬ample sentence, when we use the plural form “media,” we need to follow it up with the plural verb “are” instead of the singular one, “is.” There is one case in which many usage ex¬perts are comfortable treating “media” as singular, and that is when the group of vehicles is being referred to as a collective, as in The media has become an institution just like the gov¬ernment. However, you can avoid having to figure out whether a singular sense is acceptable or not simply by treating “media” as plural in every case—then you’ll always be correct. Con¬versely, when you’re referring to just one of the vehicles through which communication happens, remember to use the singular form, “medium.” Here are some correct examples of each:

His preferred medium has been newspapers, but I hear he’s interested in television now.

His preferred media have been newspapers and magazines.

The media work overtime when there’s a big story.

The artist’s medium was pen and ink.

The artist works in mixed media.

There has been a trend lately toward making a plural out of the word “medium” by simply adding an “s” to get “mediums.” One sees this in print from a range of sources, some downright respectable. For example, you might read, He used several mediums to reach his audience. However, this is a recent trend, and most well-spoken folks have been carefully edu¬cated that “media” is the plural of “medium.” So you would be better off sticking to that traditional distinction if you want to be sure that your listeners or readers know you know what’s right.

Mixing up Words That Sound the Same part 3

Ingenious vs. Ingenuous

Don’t Say: They crafted an ingenuous plan for the takeover.
Say Instead: They crafted an ingenious plan for the takeover.

Here’s Why: These words are virtual opposites. “Ingenu¬ous” means artless or naïve. “Ingenious” means clever and resourceful, often with a dash of trickiness thrown in. The mean¬ing of our sentence here is that these people have come up with a clever plan, not an artless one, so “ingenious” is the word we want. Additional correct examples are:

Her ingenuous remarks were unwelcome at the sophisticated dinner party.

Bill’s ingenious invention won the top prize.

The insecure director avoided the ingenuous critic.


Jibe vs. Jive

Don’t Say: These figures don’t jive.
Say Instead: These figures don’t jibe.

Here’s Why: “Jibe” means to agree, to correspond. “Jive” refers to a kind of music or dance and also the slang term used to describe them, as in “jive talk.” So here we need “jibe.” Additional correct examples are:

He plays jive at a little club downtown.

The details of your story don’t jibe with hers.


Tack vs. Tact

Don’t Say: The editor told Kim to take another tact with her story.
Say Instead: The editor told Kim to take another tack with her story.

Here’s Why: “Tact” means the quality of being adept at dealing with others, particularly where personal feelings are involved. This sentence isn’t about that. “Tack” means a course of direction or policy; in this case, the angle Kim’s story is taking. Here are more correct examples:

It took real tact to correct him without angering him.

Don’t take that tack with Ann if you want your raise.

His lack of tact makes Mr. Stevens a terrible diplomat.

Don’t give up; try another tack first.


Tortuous vs. Torturous

Don’t Say: That dental examination was tortuous.
Say Instead: That dental examination was torturous.

Here’s Why: What a difference a little “r” makes. “Tor¬tuous” means winding, crooked, a complicated path, as in The road across the mountains was tortuous. “Torturous” means full of pain or torture, which is what this poor soul is saying about the visit to the dentist’s. Here’s another correct example of each:

His logic was so tortuous that none of us could follow it.

The test was torturous for those students who hadn’t studied.

Mixing up Words That Sound the Same part 2

Climatic vs. Climactic

Don’t Say: The climactic conditions made travel difficult.
Say Instead: The climatic conditions made travel difficult.

Here’s Why: “Climactic,” which comes from “climax,” refers to a dramatic event, a peak moment. “Climatic,” which comes from “climate,” refers, of course, to the prevailing weather conditions. That extra little “c” in there makes all the difference. Here are additional correct examples:

At the play’s climactic moment, he yelled, “Don’t open it!” to the actor on stage.

The problems with the trip to Antarctica weren’t so¬cial, they were climatic. The war was the climactic event in his presidency.

The farmers met to discuss climatic issues such as the drought.


Could of vs. Could have

Don’t Say: I could of danced all night.
Say Instead: I could have danced all night.

Here’s Why: This error springs from a common trick on the ear: The word “have” often sounds like the word “of’ in everyday speech. So lots of the great helping verb teams in English—such as could have, would have, should have, may have, and might have—sound like could of, should of, and so on. This is especially true when “have” is contracted—when, for example, “should have” becomes “should’ve.” But don’t be fooled. You want to avoid two related errors here: In formal speech, avoid pronouncing “have” like “of,” and when you’re writing, make sure to use “have.” Here are additional correct examples:

Bob shouldn’t have ordered the Ultimate Texas Chili if he’s recovering from an ulcer. I would have let you drive if you’d asked me.

We might have lost our last opportunity to see a baseball game this season.


Elude vs. Allude

Don’t Say: Did Sandy elude to her first marriage when you talked?
Say Instead: Did Sandy allude to her first marriage when you talked?

Here’s Why: “Elude” and “allude” have very different meanings. “Elude” means to escape or avoid, as in The thief eluded the police. But “allude” means to refer to something indirectly, as in He alluded to his ambitions, but wouldn’t come right out and tell us what he wanted. Two additional correct examples are:
I eluded discovery by changing my name to Guido.
Her poetry seems cheery, but it alludes to a troubled childhood.

Imminent vs. Eminent

Don’t Say: After her graffiti episode at the office, Amy won¬dered if her dismissal were eminent.
Say Instead: After her graffiti episode at the office, Amy wondered if her dismissal were imminent.

Here’s Why: “Eminent” is an adjective meaning famous or distinguished. “Imminent” describes a thing that is about to happen. In the example, Amy is wondering if she is about to be fired, so “imminent” is correct. Other correct examples are:

I don’t care if he is an eminent psychologist; he eats with his fingers, and I won’t invite him. His palm reader said that a love affair was imminent.

Their unfortunate noses are the Brooks family’s most eminent feature. Disaster was imminent from the moment he lit the match to look for oil.

Mixing up Words That Sound the Same part 1

One of the great things about the English language is its extraordinary depth. It has so many words that there seems to be one assigned to every possible sliver of an idea; every shade or nuance of meaning is covered. The difficulty with this, how-ever, is that many of these nuances escape us, and we mistake one word for another—we make usage errors. In the next three chapters, we’ll take a magnifying glass to pairs of words that are often confused and identify their precise meanings so that you’ll know when and how to use them correctly.
This chapter will consider words that we mix up because they sound almost the same. One little letter can make a big difference!

Accept vs. Except

Don’t Say: All the men wore ties accept for Louis.
Say Instead: All the men wore ties except for Louis.

Here’s Why: “Accept” means to receive something or to agree to it as valid. “Except” means to exclude. In this sentence we are talking about excluding Louis from the group of men who wore ties, not receiving him, so “except” is correct. Additional correct examples are:

We accept your invitation.

Sally accepted all the applause.

Jerry came with all his former wives, except Marie.

Stuart was excepted from the meeting because he

couldn’t be trusted.


Advice vs. Advise

Don’t Say: My advise to you is to stop eating Maureen’s Irish chili.
Say Instead: My advice to you is to stop eating Maureen’s Irish chili.

Here’s Why: “Advise” is a verb, meaning the action of providing someone with counsel or suggestions on how she should behave. “Advice” is the noun meaning the suggestions themselves. You advise a person to do something. That some¬thing is the advice you offer. In this sentence, we’re referring not to the action of offering a suggestion, but to the suggestion itself, namely that no more of this chili should be eaten. So the noun “advice” is right. Additional correct examples are:

Take my advice.

Problem students were advised by Mrs. Stanley.

As a first-year law student, Peter’s legal advice wasn’t all that trustworthy.

How dare you advise me to quit the same job you made me take!


Affect vs. Effect

Don’t Say: Larry was deeply effected by the new rule forbidding beef jerky on the job.
Say Instead: Larry was deeply affected by the new rule forbidding beef jerky on the job.

Here’s Why: The verb “affect” means to influence or to touch the feelings of someone, which is clearly what happened in this sentence with poor Larry. The verb “effect” is incorrect here because it means to bring something about, to cause some¬thing. “Effect” can also be a noun used to identify the result, the thing that has been brought about, as in The effects of smoking are bad. Here are some additional correct examples featuring “affect” and “effect”:

Jane effected major design changes when she took over.
(Jane brought the changes about.)

Jane’s new decor affected us all.
(The decor influenced or touched everyone.)

His stories affect me very deeply.
(They influence or touch me.)

The effects of this spending cut are unknown.
(Here “effects” is a noun, meaning the results.)


Amoral vs. Immoral

Don’t Say: Her amoral behavior was a bad influence on the children.
Say Instead: Her immoral behavior was a bad influence on the children.

Here’s Why: “Amoral” means to be completely outside the question of morality, neither good nor bad. “Immoral” means to be inside the boundaries, but to choose the wrong side. It means behavior that is not moral. In the example sentence, the meaning is that the mother’s behavior is bad, so “immoral” is the word we want. Here are more correct examples:

Babies are amoral when they’re born.

She thought her charitable donations compensated for her immoral acts.

Does Bobby’s autism make him amoral, or does he understand the concepts of right and wrong?

He seems too kind to have done such an immoral thing.



Averse vs. Adverse

Don’t Say: The pills made him green, but had no other averse effects.
Say Instead: The pills made him green, but had no other adverse effects.

Here’s Why: “Averse” means to be in opposition. “Ad¬verse” means unfavorable or bad. If it helps you, think of “bad” rhyming with the first syllable of “adverse.” In this case, where we’re talking about bad side effects, the word we want is “ad¬verse.” Additional correct examples are:
She was averse to all his opinions. The pilot landed the plane under adverse conditions. The court seems averse to that interpretation of the law. He stopped writing after all the adverse criticism of his first book.


Beside vs. Besides

Don’t Say: Hey, others beside you want to get through this checkout line.
Say Instead: Hey, others besides you want to get through this checkout line.

Here’s Why: “Beside” without an “s” means to be at the side of. “Besides” with an “s” means in addition to, or more¬over, as in our sentence here, where the idea is that others in addition to the person being rebuked would like to get through the line. Here are more correct examples:

He’s smart and handsome and rich besides.

Well, I’ll sit beside him, but I don’t have to like it.

Besides Lynn, there will be four people going today.

Please put the sofa down beside the chair, or maybe beside the table, or wait—maybe beside the window.


Biannually vs. Biennially

Don’t Say: The PTA elections were held biannually—in even numbered years.
Say Instead: The PTA elections were held biennially—in even numbered years.

Here’s Why: This one’s tricky: Both words begin with the prefix “bi-,” which means two. But “biennially” means every two years, and “biannually” means twice a year. If it helps you, think of the “annual” in “biannually” as a reminder that you’re talking about a single year’s worth of time. Here are two other correct examples:

The biannual status report comes out each January and June.

Enjoy these blooms now—they’re biennials, so they won’t be here next spring.

Mangled Modifiers

“Modifiers” are a neat class of words. They’re the adjec¬tives and adverbs we use to dress up other words with color and dimension and thousands of other descriptions. And for the most part, we do a pretty good job of using them correctly. But there are a few landmines in this happy field of modifiers, and this chapter will teach you to step gracefully around them.

Adjectives vs. Adverbs
Bad vs. Badly
Real vs. Really
Near vs. Nearly
Good vs. Well


Comparatives vs. Superlatives
Bigger vs. Biggest
Less vs. Least
Better vs. Best
More vs. Most

Distance/Number/Quantity Modifiers
Between vs. Among
Fewer vs. Less
Farther vs. Further
Number vs. Amount
So far as vs. As far as

Intensive or Reflexive Pronouns—What They’re for and Where NOT to Put Them

Intensive or reflexive refers to a single group of pronouns that people often sprinkle around where they’re not needed: “myself,” “yourself,” “himself,” “herself,” “itself,” “ourselves,” “yourselves,” and “themselves.” The labels intensive and re¬flexive are handy because they refer to the only situations in which these pronouns can be correctly used.

❑ Intensive usage is just like it sounds: adding emphasis, or intensity, to the subject as a way to reinforce the idea that it’s that person who’s involved and not someone else. For example:

You yourself should go there.

I will keep it myself.

The mountain itself caused his fall.

❑ Reflexive usage is when the pronoun reflects the action of the verb back onto the subject. Think of it as one greedy person or thing who’s playing the role of both subject and ob¬ject in the sentence. For example:

I hit myself in the knee.

She warned herself not to do it.

The garden renewed itself every spring.

The basic rule with intensive and reflective pronouns is that they can ONLY be used in these intensive and reflexive situations. They cannot be used where an ordinary pronoun, such as “I,” “me,” “she,” or “it,” would do the job.

Let’s look at some errors that people make with these pronouns.


Me vs. Myself

Don’t Say: Thank you for inviting Jack and myself.
Say Instead: Thank you for inviting Jack and me.

Here’s Why: The pronoun “myself” is not attached in any way to the subject of the sentence here, which is “you,” and that’s a sign of trouble. It’s not intensifying the subject or re¬flecting the action of the verb “inviting” back onto the subject. So the penalty flag is down. Substituting “myself’ when the personal pronoun “me” will suffice occurs a lot when people think that “me” sounds funny or that “myself” sounds more elegant and formal. Don’t give in to temptation.

Mnemonic Tip: If a personal pronoun such as “me” or “I” gets the idea across, even if it sounds funny, use it. It’ll be correct.

Relative Pronouns: “Which,” “That,” and “Who/Whom”

You should be glad to know that the most important thing about using these pronouns is also the easiest to understand. In fact, you probably are entirely aware of it already, for it’s sim¬ply a rule that “which” can only be used to refer to things (whether they’re tangible such as beds or buildings, or intan¬gible such as ideas), but not to people. You’d never say, The plumber which you met yesterday goes to our church, al¬though you certainly could say, The plumber goes to our church, which is on the next block.” Because the plumber is a person, the clause describing him needs the pronoun in “the plumber that you met...” or “the plumber whom you met….”

There’s also a second, trickier rule involving the difference between “which” and “that.” To be honest, you’re not likely to get into much trouble by neglecting this rule; it’s sometimes disregarded by people whose English is otherwise very good, but it is a rule that makes sense and that’s observed by most careful speakers and writers. Explaining it calls for a bit of specialist’s language, but examples should make things pretty clear.

Accordingly, let’s consider two sentences. Each of them uses the relative pronoun correctly, and we’ll shortly under¬stand why this is the case.

The cat, which had been sleeping for hours, woke up when the canary sang.

The cat that had been sleeping for hours was hungrier than the cat that ate the canary.

Now, in the first sentence, the clause “which had been sleeping for hours” gives us some information about the cat, but it isn’t essential to the meaning of the sentence; we know the significant fact, that the cat awoke, whether or not we have the additional information contained in the clause, “which had been sleeping.” This clause is, we can say, nonessential, or, as the grammarians put it, a nonrestrictive clause—nonrestric¬tive because, although it does describe what the cat has been doing, it doesn’t restrict or limit the meaning of the principal clause; the cat awoke, regardless of how long it had been sleeping. Because our clause is thus nonrestrictive, or non¬essential, we indicate its “expendable” nature by using the pronoun “which” and, in writing, by setting off the clause with commas.

In the second sentence, on the other hand, the clauses be¬ginning with “that” are clearly essential to the meaning of the sentence, which would otherwise only tell us that one (unspeci¬fied) cat was hungrier than another (unspecified) cat. For the sentence to do any sort of job, it must narrow its meaning down; it must distinguish between cats, between the sleeper and the canary-eater, and thus restrict the principal action to two par¬ticular, clearly different creatures. These restrictive clauses are not expendable; they are essential to and inseparable from the basic meaning of the sentence. They are signaled by the pronoun “that,” and, in writing, they are not set off by commas.
As you can see, the rules can be pretty clearly stated:
Use which in a nonrestrictive clause (a clause not essential to the meaning of the sentence).
Use that in a restrictive clause (a clause essential to the meaning of the sentence).

There’s one pretty obvious exception to these rules. If you have a nonrestrictive clause (calling for “which”) but you are referring to a person, follow the earlier rule (and probably your own instinct); avoid the “which” and go back to “who” or “whom.” So it’s proper (and certainly natural) to say:
Bob, who (and not, in this case, “which”) had been spending his day fishing, ate all the hot dogs.

With a restrictive clause referring to a person, you can, as with all restrictive clauses, use “that,” or, as many people pre¬fer, “who” or “whom.” Here are a few examples:

The man that you just insulted is my brother-in-law.

Or: The man whom you just insulted is my brother-in-law.


Which vs. That


Don’t Say: The invitations which we sent by carrier pigeon arrived sooner than the invitations which we sent in the mail.
Say Instead: The invitations that we sent by carrier pigeon arrived sooner than the invitations that we sent in the mail.

Here’s Why: In this case “that” is correct, because the clauses are restrictive: They help us distinguish one group of invitations from another group. Here are additional correct ex¬amples featuring “which” and “that”:

Is she the one that you broke up with?

The tennis ball that the dog played with was wet.

Sharon is the one that I’m going to marry.

The car, which had been stolen only an hour before, was found stripped down to its frame.

Objective and Possessive Cases

His vs. Him

Don’t Say: It’s a question of him being ready on time.
Say Instead: It’s a question of his being ready on time.

Here’s Why: This is a problem of using the objective case where the possessive one is needed. What’s being possessed? It doesn’t have to be tangible, such as a book. In this example it’s a state, the state of “being ready on time.” So the possessive form “his” is required. The possessives “my,” “her,” “their,” and “your” can be used the same way, as we’ll see in the next error.

Their vs. Them

Don’t Say: It was the teacher’s willingness to consider them leaving early that surprised the students most.
Say Instead: It was the teacher’s willingness to consider their leaving early that surprised the students most.

Here’s Why: Again, we need the possessive case here, “their.” That’s because the pronoun isn’t functioning as an ob¬ject, it’s doing the job of an adjective by indicating whose early leaving we’re talking about.

Here’s another correct example:

Marge objected to their eating during the ceremony.

What’s being possessed is an action: Marge objects to eat¬ing, but not to all eating; she hasn’t started a Society for the Prevention of Eating. So we need a possessive adjective to say whose eating Marge objects to: not to eating in general, but to their eating.

But wait, it gets trickier. One reason why these sentences are so tough is that they look like another kind of sentence that needs another kind of pronoun. The following example is correct:

Marge saw them eating during the ceremony.

What happened? Well, our emphasis has changed from the action of eating to the people doing the eating. Marge sees them—the direct object of the sentence—and “eating” modi¬fies “them”—it describes what they are doing while Marge happens to see them.

Tip: How can you tell which kind of a sentence you’ve got? One good test is to try leaving the “-ing” word out. If the sentence still communicates the most important part of its mean¬ing, then the emphasis is on the people, and you need the objec¬tive case. “Marge saw them” tells us who it was that Marge saw perfectly well; we don’t really need to know that they were eating.

But if the meaning of the sentence changes dramatically when you leave out the “-ing” word, then the emphasis is on the action, and all you need is a possessive pronoun to modify it. “Marge objected to them,” for example, just doesn’t com-municate the essence of Marge’s original objection. She didn’t object to everything about them, to their hair or their clothes or their politics, for example. She objected only to their eat¬ing. The emphasis is on the action, so Marge needs a posses¬sive. Here are some more preferred choices of each kind of sentence.

Bob was irritated by my singing in the shower.

We’ve decided to put a stop to your bickering with your sister.
Because the pronoun depends on what the speaker wants to emphasize, sometimes there is no cut-and-dried “correct” choice: it’s entirely up to the speaker. The following two examples are both correct.

Everyone in the house heard me singing in the shower.

Everyone in the house heard my singing in the shower.

Subjective and Objective Cases part 2

Who vs. Whom

Don’t Say: Who is the present for?
Say Instead: Whom is the present for?

Here’s Why: Think about what role the pronoun is playing here. The subject of this sentence is “the present.” The pro¬noun is an object, the object of the preposition “for,” to be ex¬act. So it should be in the objective case, and that’s “whom.”

Tip: When deciding between “who” and “whom,” it can be easier if you use the “m” test: Think of how you would restate the sentence with the pronoun he/him or they/them, and if you use a form that ends in “m,” you need “whom.” For example, in this sentence, you’d say, Is the present for them? You wouldn’t say, Is the present for they. That “them,” in the objective case—with the “m” on the end—is your clue that you need the objective case form “whom” with the “m” on the end. Or you can figure out how you’d answer a who/whom question using he or him. In the sentence Who/whom was the friend you brought with you? you would answer “he is the friend” not “him is the friend.” Subjective case, no “m”—that’s the signal that “who” is correct.

Here are more correct uses of “who” and “whom”:

That’s the actor whom Sally adores. (Sally adores him.)

Can I tell her who is calling? (He is calling.)

Whom are you asking to the party? (You are asking them to the party.)

To whom are you returning these roses? (You are returning the roses to him.)

I want the people who did this to step forward. (They did this.)

Now here’s a tricky correct example that even “who/ whom” whizzes can get confused:

She’ll marry the man who she thinks has the finest collection of ties.

The “she thinks” gives a lot of people fits here: It may seem as if the pronoun should be the object of “thinks” and that therefore we need “whom.” But the pronoun is actually the subject of “has,” which becomes clear when we apply the “m” test. You wouldn’t say She thinks him has the finest collec¬tion of ties, instead, you’d say, She thinks he has the finest collection of ties. No “m,” so we need “who.” Many sen-tences follow a similar pattern when they include an extra clause reporting what people believe, think, or say.

Sheila, who I believe has the largest collection of fountain pens in North America, always writes letters on her computer.

My blind date, who you’d said would be “interesting,” proved to be just that.


Whoever vs. Whomever

Don’t Say: Give the tickets to whomever can use them.
Say Instead: Give the tickets to whoever can use them.

Here’s Why: You may have been tempted to say “whom¬ever” here, because it may seem to be the object of “to.” But actually the object of “to” is the whole final clause “whoever can use them.” Within that clause, the pronoun is the subject of the verb “can,” so the subjective case is required, and that’s “whoever.”

Grammatically, “whoever” and “whomever” work the same way that “who” and “whom” do. Wherever you would use “who,” you use “whoever,” and wherever you would use “whom,” you use “whomever.” “Whoever” can be used as the subject of a verb, for example:

Whoever took my belt had better give it back.

Whoever said that was crazy.

“Whomever” can put in an appearance as a verb’s object:
Please bring whomever you like to the picnic.

But these pronouns get tough when it’s hard to tell which part of the sentence determines which pronoun we should use. That’s what might happen in the first sample sentence, Give the tickets to whoever can use them. More correct examples of this tricky pattern are:

It will be hard for whoever wins to run the state.
(“Whoever” is the subject of “wins.”)

We’ll have to get whomever we can to do the job.
(“Whomever” is the subject of the infinitive “to do.”)

Subjective and Objective Cases part 1

I vs. Me

Don’t Say: This is a problem for Ellen and I to solve.
Say Instead: This is a problem for Ellen and me to solve

Here’s Why: Let’s apply the rule that pronoun cases are supposed to agree with their roles in the sentence. In this sen¬tence, the subject is the word “this.” “Ellen,” and “I” are sub¬jects too, but they’re subjects of the infinitive “to solve,” so “I,” the subjective case, is incorrect here.

Almost no one would pick the wrong form of the pronoun in this sentence if there weren’t two people involved. You’d say, “this is a problem for me to solve,” using the correct objec¬tive case instinctively. But throw another person in there, and everybody squirms, thinking “Ellen and me” sounds funny. We’re often afraid of the word “me,” but “me” is perfectly respect¬able and hates being shunted aside for no reason.

Tip: Here’s an easy way to figure out whether “I” or “me” is correct when there’s more than one person in your sentence. Ask yourself what form of the pronoun you’d pick if you took the other person out, just like we did when we dumped poor Ellen. The choice you make between “I” and “me” when there’s no one else involved is the same one you should make when everyone and your mother are part of the story. Let’s look at a few more examples to cement this down:
Instead of Me and Jerry are leaving, say Jerry and I
are leaving.

(Here, the personal pronoun is intended to be the subject of the verb “are,” so you need the subjective case form, “I.” Double-check by using the tip: Would you say,

“Me are leaving?” No, you’d say, “I am leaving,” so “I” is correct.)

Instead of saying It was me, say It was I.
(Remember, you need the subjective case whenever the personal pronoun follows a form of the verb “to be” without the “to” in front, whenever it’s the complement of a linking verb. That’s what we’ve got going on here. The verb “was” in this sentence is of course a form of the verb “to be.” So we need the subjective pronoun, “I,” instead of the objective form, “me.”)

Still more examples, all correct:

Jack and Jill are going with me down the hill.

Jack and I are going down the hill with Jill.

There’s nothing between Laverne and me,

I swear! Will you come to dinner with Sandy and me?

They’ve known Larry and me for years.

Larry and I have known them for years.


She vs. Her

Don’t Say: Yes, this is her ; who’s calling?
Say Instead: Yes, this is she; who’s calling?

Here’s Why: In this sentence, the pronoun follows a finite form of the verb “to be,” namely “is.” That means the subjec¬tive case, “she,” is required. Additional correct “she” and “her” examples are:

She, as the oldest, was the most responsible.

Her opinions were ignored by her six elder brothers.

She and I are cooking together.

A nervous look passed between her and him.

“He” and “him” follow the same pattern: use “he” follow¬ing a finite form of the verb “to be”:

This is he. It was he who we saw dancing with Lucille.

But use “him” as the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.

We saw him at the dance hall with Lucille.

Lucille was dancing with him.

Lucille gave him a meaningful glance.

Perplexing Pronouns

Introduction

It’s easy to explain what a pronoun is: It’s a word used in place of a noun. Saying, “She ran away,” when you mean your cat, is an example of a pronoun in action. But using pro¬nouns correctly can be tricky, because they come in different types, and some of these types come in a variety of forms, so that before you know it, you can’t even explain where you’ve been all day. Is it, “Joe invited Bill and me to play golf”? Or “Bill and I”?
In this chapter, we’ll focus mainly on three areas of par¬ticular difficulty:

First, the cases of certain pronouns and how to tell which you should use. This is the “I” vs. “me” and “who” vs. “whom” stuff that gives many of us so much trouble.
Second, the two relative pronouns “which” and “that” and how to choose between them.
And third, the overly popular intensive or reflex¬ive pronouns, such as “myself” or “himself,” and how to avoid putting them where they don’t belong.

A Lesson on Pronoun Cases

Personal pronouns and a couple of relative pronouns vary in form according to person and number (as discussed in the Grammar Review) and according to case as well. The three cases are the subjective case (sometimes called the nomina¬tive case), the objective case, and the possessive case. You choose between them according to the role you’re asking the pronoun to take on in a sentence.

For a basic illustration, let’s say you’re referring to your¬self and your ownership of a book. You might say I own that book or That book belongs to me or That book is mine. In those three sentences we used the first-person singular pro¬nouns “I,” “me,” and “mine.” In each instance, of course, you’re referring to yourself, but the form of the pronoun you use to do it changes. In the first sentence, I own that book, you are the subject of the sentence and identified by the pronoun “I.” “I” is the subjective case. In the second sentence, That book be¬longs to me, the subject is “that book,” and you, the owner, are now the object of the preposition “to,” and you’re identified by the pronoun “me.” “Me” is the objective case. And in the third sentence, That book is mine, you, the owner, have an adjecti¬val role indicated by the pronoun “mine.” “Mine” is the posses¬sive case.

Here are the case forms for each of the personal pronouns— and the two relative pronouns that take different case forms. The pronouns themselves are familiar, of course, but watch how they sort themselves according to case, and notice that some of the forms do not vary.





How do you determine the correct case for a given pro¬noun? There are a bunch of little rules that cover less common situations, but the basic guidelines are:

Use the subjective case when…

❑ The pronoun is the subject of the verb.
In other words, when the pronoun is the person or thing that commits the action.
I, we, you, he, she, it, they ran away.

❑ The pronoun follows a finite form of the verb “to be” (any form of “to be” except the infinitive form with the “to” in front of it).
In other words, use the subjective case if the pronoun is the complement of the linking verb “to be” (see the Grammar Re¬view for more on this concept):
They believed that the thief was I, you, he, she.
They believed that the thieves were we, you, they.
Use the objective case when…

❑ The pronoun is the object of a verb.
The pronoun “receives” the action in the sentence: it isn’t do¬ing anything, but something is being done to it:
The search team found me, him, her, it, us, you, them.

❑ The pronoun is the indirect object of a verb.
The pronoun is the person or thing for whom (or for which) something is being done:

Bob gave me, him, her, us, you, them all the zucchini in his garden.

❑ The pronoun is the subject of an infinitive.
This is different from being the subject of the whole sentence, in which you’d use the subjective case. In the following sen¬tence, “the boss” is the subject of the main verb, “told,” but “me” (or one of the other pronoun choices) is the subject of the verb “to do,” which is being used in this sentence in its infinitive form, with the “to” in front:

The boss told me, him, her, us, you, them to do it.

❑ The pronoun is the object of an infinitive.
This means the pronoun is identifying someone on the receiv¬ing end of the action expressed by the infinitive. Remember, the infinitive is not the main verb in this sentence, it’s a second¬ary part of the predicate:

The judge wanted to believe me, him, her, it, us, you, them.

❑ The pronoun is the object of a preposition.
Put the blanket over me, you, him, her, it, us, them.

Use the possessive case when…

❑ The pronoun itself is being used to indicate possession.

My, your, her, his, our, their toaster.

Everyone…Their

Don’t Say: Everyone collects their paycheck on Friday.
Say Instead: Everyone collects his—or her—paycheck on Friday.

Here’s Why: In this case, the agreement problem isn’t the verb. It’s the pronoun “their” that’s wrong. “Their” is plu¬ral, but what the sentence really needs is a singular pronoun to refer back to the singular subject, “everyone.” Your correct pronoun choices in cases like these are “his,” “her,” and “it.” Years ago, using “his” was the standard, regardless of whether the reference was to men or women, and the corrected version of this sentence would have been Everyone collects his pay¬check on Friday. These days, that sort of construction is usu¬ally viewed as inappropriate, unless everyone referred to actually is male. Instead, we have a few choices. Let’s look at a few ways this sentence could be corrected. Instead of Everyone collects their paycheck on Friday, you could say:

Everyone collects his or her paycheck on Friday. Everyone collects his paycheck on Friday. (This as¬sumes all the paycheck collectors are men.)

Everyone collects her paycheck on Friday. (This assumes all the paycheck collectors are women.)

A note on using “his or her”: It may be egalitarian, but it can also get cumbersome. Often the best thing to do is to reconfigure the sentence to sidestep the issue altogether. For example, you might say:

Everyone collects a paycheck on Friday. The employees collect their paychecks on Friday.

In order to cement this down, let’s look at some more ex¬amples of nonagreement and agreement between indefinite pro¬nouns and other pronouns in a sentence:
Instead of Every student was told to go to their advisor, say Every student was told to go to his or her advisor, or The students were told to go to their advisors. Instead of Anyone can get in by showing their com¬pany ID at the door, say Anyone can get in by show¬ing his or her company ID at the door, or Employees can get in by showing their company ID at the door. Instead of Each of the girls was showing how they swam, say Each of the girls was showing how she swam.

Do the “wrong” versions of these sentences still sound right to you? Don’t worry. Many people use constructions such as “everyone...their.” The language may be changing in this area, and it wouldn’t be the first time. English once had both singular and plural forms of the second person pronoun: to ad¬dress two or more people, “you” and “your” were used, but to address only one person, “thou” and “thine” were used. If we still used the singular form in English, we’d get to say a lot of sentences like this: Thou shouldst get thy brakes serviced soon or thou wilt crash thy car into a tree. “Thou” and “thy” gradually dropped out of the language when speakers started to use the plural “you”—a sign of how the language changes.

Today, something similar may be happening with construc¬tions such as “everyone...their.” But for now, “everyone...their” is not considered correct in formal speech or in writing, so you should be aware of alternatives that don’t break the rules.

None…Is/Are

Don’t Say: He wants a jukebox, but none are available.
Say Instead: He wants a jukebox, but none is available.

Here’s Why: The rules on this one are genuinely in flux. Unlike the indefinite pronouns listed earlier, “none,” along with “some,” “any,” and “all,” isn’t always singular. It can be either singular or plural depending on the meaning of your sentence. The rule of thumb is: If it refers to a group in total, or to a thing as a whole, then “none” is usually viewed as singular and takes a singular verb. If it refers to a number of things, meaning your emphasis is on the quantity of the parts and not on the whole, then “none” is considered plural. In our example, He wants a jukebox, but none are available, we’re talking about not one jukebox, so the plural verb, “are,” is incorrect. Let’s look at a few more examples:

None of the cakes are ready.
(Here “none” refers to a number of cakes, so the plural form “are” is correct.)

None of the cement is left.
(In this case, we’re not talking about a number, we’re
talking about a mass of cement taken as a whole, so it’s
singular, and the singular verb “is” is correct.)

None of the rules were broken.
(Here we’re referring to more than one rule, so the plural
verb “were” is fine.)

This particular rule is pretty tough, because sometimes it’s hard to tell from the context whether the meaning is plural or singular. “None” is especially tricky in this regard. Most gram¬marians are genuinely fuzzy about this one. Conservative speak-ers insist that it should always be singular. In older English it was always singular; now it is more frequently plural unless we’re talking about an indefinable mass of something, such as cement or plastic or spaghetti. Very conservative speakers might also use the singular in the following sentence:
None of the students has finished the test yet.

The argument here is that the speaker means to take the students together as a single group. But it’s hard for most speak¬ers to use the singular in a sentence such as this one:

None of my brothers are going to the dance.

Again, the brothers could be taken together as a single group that needs a singular verb. But to most people, this sen¬tence communicates an idea of a number of nondancing broth¬ers. If you really want to use a singular verb, you could say something such as Not one of my brothers is going to the dance. So, as a rule of thumb, you’re probably going to want to use a plural verb with “none.” But if you feel the real meaning of the subject is singular, go with that instinct—the rule is loose enough to accommodate you.

Agreement With Compound Subjects

Even if a subject doesn’t come breezing into the sentence with a string of modifiers trailing after it, it can still give us agree¬ment headaches if it’s what we call a compound subject—if it has more than one part. Do you say, Jack and he is going to the game, or, Jack and he are going? And if you’re not sure which of them will attend, do you say, Either Jack or he is going or Either Jack or he are going? Here are two rules to guide you:

First, the rule on subjects joined by “and”:
With one exception, all subjects joined together by the word “and” are considered plural, because they refer to more than one person or thing. So you’ll need to use a plural verb in order to have agreement.

In the previous example, the correct form would be Jack and he are going to the game. The exception is when the parts joined by “and” are meant to refer to the same person or thing, or to something commonly considered to be a unit. Two examples are cereal and milk is a typical choice for break¬fast and Her longtime nurse and companion (meaning that these are the same person) is coming to tea.

Now for compound subjects joined by “or” or “nor.” Un¬like subjects joined by “and,” the very role of “or” and “nor” is to separate, to tell us that it’s not both things, but one thing or the other that the verb applies to. So the rule is:

Subjects joined by “or” or “nor” are not considered as
a group, and the verb’s person and number should
agree with those of the subject’s individual parts.

There are three possible scenarios here. If both parts are singular, as in the subject Mary or Donna, then the verb is singular. If they’re both plural, as in the subject Neither the girls nor the boys, the verb is plural. And in really tricky sen¬tences where you have one of each, such as Either Tony or his daughters, the verb should agree with whatever part of the subject it’s closest to in the sentence; for example, either Tony or his daughters are but either the daughters or their father is. Let’s look at a few examples of common errors in agreement between compound subjects and their verbs.

Subjects With Complex Modifiers

Don’t Say: Gloria realized that the functions of Ralph’s expensive new computer was about to be explained to her in detail.
Say Instead: Gloria realized that the functions of Ralph’s expensive new computer were about to be explained to her in detail.

Here’s Why: The subject of the verb “were” is “func¬tions,” and because “functions” is plural, it needs a plural verb: functions were. The sentence only gets confusing because of the phrase “of Ralph’s expensive new computer.” That phrase is parked right next to the verb, doing its best to look like a subject. But it’s not; it’s a mere modifier. Its sole purpose is to tell us something about the verb’s real subject, “functions.” When you’re trying to make a sentence’s subject and verb agree, then, the first thing you have to do is make sure you’ve got the real subject, not a measly little modifier trying to put on airs.

Here are some more correct examples of verbs that agree with subjects rather than their modifiers:

The people with the cute racing stripe on their truck
were driving in the center of the road.
(“Were” agrees with “people,” not “stripe” or “truck.”)

The telephone with all the fancy buttons and lights
was far too complicated for me to use.
(“Was” agrees with “telephone,” not “buttons and lights.”)

We’ll be seeing a lot more of this kind of error later on, particularly in the tests for this chapter. Complex modifiers can be a complicating factor in the other two kinds of errors that give people the most trouble in this area: agreement between compound subjects and verbs, and agreement with indefinite pronouns. Let’s take them one at a time.

Ambiguous Agreements

One of the most common mistakes people make when they’re putting together a sentence is to choose forms of words that don’t agree with each other. When we say “agree” here, we mean that the words have to correspond in both person and number. “Agreeing in person” means that a first-person noun such as “I” needs a first-person verb such as “am” to make its life complete (rather than a third-person verb like “are”). “Agreeing in number” means that a singular subject such as “lobster” would like nothing better than to settle down with a singular verb such as “is” (rather than a plural verb such as “are”).

Most sentences present few problems with agreement; we don’t have to think about it much. If you grew up speaking English, for example, it probably never would occur to you to say, I are sure that lobster are poisonous. Instead, you’d say, I am sure that lobster is poisonous, and your grammar would be correct, even if your concern about the lobster was not.

People run into trouble with agreement only when their sentences start to get complicated. By far the most common error happens when a sentence’s subject is modified by so many little phrases that you forget what the subject is—which brings us to our first agreement error: subjects with complex modifiers.

If I Was vs. If I Were

Don’t Say: If I was you, I wouldn’t wear horizontal stripes.
Say Instead: If I were you, I wouldn’t wear horizontal stripes.

Here’s Why: We need “were” instead of “was” here be¬cause we’re in the subjunctive mood. We know it’s the sub¬junctive because the signs are there: the use of “if,” and the condition contrary to fact—in this case, the fact that I cannot be you. Let’s look at a few more examples of the correct use of “was” and “were”:

I wish Jane were planning to go with us.
(The expression of a wish is the key indicator that we’re in the subjunctive mood here, and that makes this use of “were” correct.)

If Tom were in charge instead of Maria, we’d be fine!
(The meaning here is that Tom is not in charge, so the condition referred to is in opposition with reality. There¬fore, we’re in the subjunctive and “were” is correct.)

If Jack was at home, Sue must have been with him.
(Despite the “if’ that begins this sentence, we’re not in the subjunctive in this case. The meaning of the sentence is not a condition contrary to fact, or a wish or a suggestion. The implication is that Jack probably was at home. So “was” is correct.)

The Subjunctive Mood

As noted in the Grammar Review, the subjunctive mood is used to indicate a hypothetical situation, a wish, or a circum­stance contrary to fact. Examples of the last might be, “If I were rich,” said by someone who is not, or “If I were you,” because one could never actually be the other person. The subjunctive is also used occasionally to make a suggestion or a demand. Here are some uses of the subjunctive:

❑ Hypothetical Situation: If we were to leave on Friday, we’d get there early.
❑ Wish: I wish I were on the morning shift.
❑ Contrary to Fact: If I were you, I would run for office.
❑ Suggestion: I suggest she take her things with her on the trip.
❑ Demand: His teacher demanded that Ed show up on time.


You’ll notice that in most of these examples, the form of the verb doesn’t seem to match the person and number of the subject—it says, “I were” instead of “I am,” “she take” in­stead of “she takes” and “Ed show” instead of “Ed shows.” There is a whole thicket full of odd-sounding constructions in the subjunctive mood, most of them used only in poetic or par­liamentary contexts. However, all you really need to know in order to navigate the subjunctive waters successfully for most occasions are two rules. Here’s the less important one first:

In the subjunctive mood, verbs in the present tense drop the “s” they normally end with in the third person. In other words, instead of I suggest she attends, it should be I suggest she attend.

The most significant rule, though, is for the verb “to be,” because that’s the verb most commonly used in the subjunctive mood today. And the rule is this:
The past tense form “was” is always replaced by “were” in the subjunctive mood, no matter what the person and number of the subject is. For example, you shouldn’t say If he was there, this wouldn’t have happened. You should say If he were there, this wouldn’t have happened.

How can you be sure you’re dealing with the subjunctive so you know whether “were” is correct? Here’s a litmus test: First, check for key words, such as “if,” “as though,” and “wish.”

They are used in all the moods but are so common in the sub­junctive that their presence in a sentence increases the odds that that’s the mood you’re dealing with. Second, ask yourself if the sentence is about an uncertainty, a wish, a suggestion, a demand, or a condition clearly contrary to fact, such as If wishes were horses then beggars would ride. If it is, you’re definitely in the subjunctive and you need to change your “wases” to “weres.”

“Shall” and “Will”

Grammar and usage experts get themselves into a lather on the finer points of this issue, and the English have an elabo­rate system that Americans are sometimes taught in school but stubbornly refuse to use. But we’ll spare you the English sys­tem here. Just keep in mind that in formal (American) speech or writing, “shall” is the correct form of “to be” for the first person (“I” or “we”) in the future and future perfect tenses. Clearly, though, “shall” is not a word you hear every day, and the negative contraction of “shall,” “shan’t” (the functional equivalent of “won’t”), sounds downright odd to American ears. A sentence such as I shan’t have any grits today, thank you would draw stares at your local diner. Most Americans simply use “will” and “won’t” in place of “shall” and “shan’t,” and it would be hard to find someone who frowns on this in ordinary conversation. However, when you wish to write or speak with the highest degree of precision and formality, use “shall” in the first person. And we shan’t trouble you any more on this matter.

Sit vs. Set

Don’t Say: Just set there for a minute while I check it for you.
Say Instead: Just sit there for a minute while I check it for you.

Here’s Why: Like “lie” and “lay,” “sit” and “set” are a pair of transitive and intransitive verbs with related meanings. “Set” means to put or to place something somewhere or to put it in motion. It is always transitive, and thus always needs an object. “Sit,” on the other hand, is virtually always intransitive. It means, in the case of people, to be in a seated position, or in the case of things, to be at rest. It almost never takes an object, because the sitting usually isn’t being done to anything. The exception would be something such as He sat them down for a talk, but that’s rare. Here are some correct examples of these two verbs in action:

Please set down that priceless vase.
(“Set” is transitive—its direct object is “vase.”)
Why don’t you sit a little closer to me?
(“Sit” is intransitive—no object.)

He sat over there for hours without moving.
(“Sat” is intransitive—no object.)

She set out bad cookies and weak punch.
(“Set” is transitive—direct objects are “cookies” and “punch.”)

I swear, I was just sitting there, minding my own business!
(“Sitting” is intransitive—no object.)

He was just setting down the safe when the police caught him.
(“Setting” is transitive—the direct object is “safe.”)

Lie vs. Lay

Don’t Say: She lays down for a nap after her mother visits.
Say Instead: She lies down for a nap after her mother visits.

Here’s Why: Though “lie” and “lay” have closely related meanings, they’re two entirely different verbs. “Lay” is a tran­sitive verb, meaning to put or place or prepare something—that “something” being the verb’s direct object. “Lie,” on the other hand, is an intransitive verb that takes no object, and it means to be in a state of reclining. Said another way, “lying” is some­thing you do yourself, or something an object is doing for itself inanimate objects such as books can be said to be in a state of reclining as well as people can. “Laying,” on the other hand, is more action-oriented. It’s something a person is doing to an­other thing. For example, you may lay (not lie) a book on a table, after which the book may be said to be lying (not laying) on the table. The following are correct uses of “lie” and “lay”:

Lie down and go to sleep.
(Not lay down—we’re not asking this person to put or place something else down, we’re asking him to take a reclining position.)

Don’t just lie there, do something!
(Same thing—we’re talking about a person in a state of reclining.)

He lays down the law at his house.
(Here things are different—no one’s reclining; in fact, this man seems busy. He’s putting something down, in this case the law, which is the direct object. So the transi­tive verb “lays” is correct.)

She is laying the foundation for a takeover.
(Again, she’s putting something in place, the foundation. This isn’t about reclining.)

That dog of yours is lying on the couch again.
(Here we are talking about reclining, a thing the dog is happily doing for itself, so “lying” is correct.)

Just let it lie.
(The “it” here isn’t having anything done to it; it’s just lying there. “Lie” is the correct choice.)

Perhaps the trickiest aspect of “lie” and “lay,” however, is what happens when you’re describing something that happened in the past or is to happen in the future. The forms of the two verbs look more similar then, because some of the “lie” forms have an “a” in them. For example, the past tense of “lie” is “lay.”

Three rules can help guide you through the “lay/lie” maze:
1. “Lie” is about the state of reclining or rest, and “lay” is about putting or placing something.
2. Every form of “lay” must take an object.
3. No form of the verb “lie,” meaning to recline, has a “d” in it.

Here are a few more examples of incorrect and correct uses of these two verbs:
Instead of It laid there for weeks, say It lay there for weeks.
(Let’s look to our three rules to see why “lay” is correct here. First, the meaning—we’re talking about something in a state of rest, not putting or placing something. That tells us we’re in the “lie” category. Second, objects— there’s no object here. More confirmation that we should be dealing with “lie” and not “lay.” Third, tense forms— “laid” has to be wrong when we’re dealing with the verb “lie” because it has a “d” in it, and no form of “lie” has a “d.” “Lay” is the correct past tense of “lie.”)

Instead of Amy had just laid down when he called, say Amy had just lain down when he called.
(“Had lain” is correct because it’s part of the “lie” family, its past perfect tense to be exact, and again, we’re talking about a person doing her own reclining. And remember, once you know that you should be using “lie” instead of “lay,” you know that any form with a “d” in it is out of bounds.)

Instead of By the time we leave next week, we will have lain some ground rules for the kids, say By the time we leave next week, we will have laid some ground rules for the kids. (Even when things get tricky with tenses, the same rules apply. The meaning here? We’re talking about putting something in place, namely the ground rules. The rules are a direct object. So we know we want the verb “lay.” Then all we have to do is get the tense form right...and remembering that the forms with “d” belong to “lay,” we know that “will have laid” is correct.)

Vexing Verbs

Vexing Verbs

Verbs don’t always play fair. They’re a huge, complicated pack of words, most of which conform to a set of rules and principles governing the different forms they take. But these rules aren’t always obvious, and—wouldn’t you know it—there are also lots of outliers, irregular verbs of one sort or another that require special handling and are slippery enough to cause problems for even the most careful speakers. In this chapter, we’ll study three topics at the root of most of the common errors made with verbs: transitive vs. intransitive verbs, tenses of certain notorious irregular verbs, and the subjunctive mood.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Here’s the low-down: Transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object in order to complete their meanings. Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. If these terms, “transitive” and “intransitive,” seem a little opaque at first, think of it this way: The transit in “transitive” refers to the idea of being con­veyed across something, as in a city’s transit system. Similarly, transitive verbs are those in which the action of the verb is being conveyed across from the subject to the direct object that is, from the person doing the acting to the person or thing on the receiving end of the action. (If the terms “subject” and “direct object” are confusing, take a little side trip back to the Grammar Review.) Take, for example, the sentence The cat ate the canary. Here the action of eating is being conveyed across from the subject, “cat,” to the direct object, “canary.” The cat was the one doing the eating, but his action of eating was worked upon, or received by, the unfortunate canary. Thus the sense of “transit” in this transitive use of the verb “ate.”

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive depend­ing on the way in which they’re used in a sentence. But some verbs are transitive through and through. The verb “to bring” is one of these. It requires a direct object to complete its mean­ing, to answer the question bring what? You wouldn’t have a meaningful sentence by saying, “he brings,” but add the direct object “trouble” and you’ve got yourself a real sentence: He brings trouble.
The verb “to weep,” on the other hand, can go either way. You can say, He weeps crocodile tears, where “tears” is the direct object—the things being wept. The presence of that di­rect object means that “weep” is functioning here as a transi­tive verb. However, you can also say, He weeps at weddings, and have no direct object—there’s nothing on the receiving end of his action of weeping. In that case, the verb is function­ing in an intransitive mode. See if you can pick out the transi­tive and intransitive verbs in these sentences:

Who will take the children?
(The verb here is “take.” Is there something on the receiving end of the action that rounds out its mean­ing? Yes—the direct object is “children.” So “take” is transitive.)

Who told you that?
(The verb is “told,” but its meaning isn’t complete—we need to know what was told. So the verb is transitive, and its direct object is “that.” For the record, “you” is an indi­rect object here.)

The train runs late every day.
(The verb “runs” is intransitive in this sentence. Although we hear something more about the way the train runs, namely that it is late every day, these words are not ob­jects. They aren’t on the receiving end of the action of running. They’re describing the manner in which the train runs. It’s possible for the verb “runs” to be used transi­tively as well: She runs a restaurant downtown. Here “restaurant” is a direct object.)

She is harboring a fugitive.
(The verb “harboring” is transitive; the direct object is “fugitive.”)

The diva was unbearably self-indulgent.
(The verb “was” is a linking verb, and thus is neither transitive or intransitive: It takes a complement rather than a direct object.)

Now that you’re getting the hang of this, let’s look at two common errors caused by the confusing use of transitive and intransitive verbs.

Made-up Words part 2

Adding “-ize”

Don’t Say: Every time Malcom’s mail is late he says they should privatize the postal service.
Say Instead: Every time Malcom’s mail is late he says they should turn over the postal service to the private sector.

Here’s Why: There are a lot of respectable “-ize” verbs such as “hospitalize,” “jeopardize,” and “institutionalize” that had to travel a long and rocky path to acceptability. But there are a number of “-ize” words in popular use—especially in business environments—that haven’t made it yet into the hallsof standard English. These include “privatize” from our example, as well as “finalize, “prioritize,” “incentivize,” and “theorize.” These words sound like needless jargon at best and pretentious jargon at worst—they’re best avoided by careful speakers and writers.


Enthuse

Don’t Say: The company president enthused over the new budget report until he discovered that it contained five mathematical errors.
Say Instead: The company president praised (or applauded) the new budget report until he discovered that it contained five mathematical errors.

Here’s Why: The verb “enthuse” is a fine word that performs a useful function: it conveys either the causing or the expressing of enthusiasm. But it’s a relatively recent creation, and some conservative speakers still object to it. So enthuse away in ordinary conversation at home and at work; but in the most formal kind of speech and writing, however, you may wish to cater to the conservatives and avoid it.


Adding “-wise”

Don’t Say: It’s an interesting job, but not much salary-wise.
Say Instead: It’s an interesting job, but the salary is small.

Here’s Why: Lots of respectable words end in “-wise” as a way of indicating a manner or a direction—“clockwise” is a common example. However, tacking on the suffix “-wise” willynilly in order to convey “with regard to” is a no-no. Stay away from formulations such as “profit-wise,” “time-wise,” and “height-wise.”

Made-up Words part 1

People are always making up words. Usually the idea is to transform a noun or an adjective into a verb, say, for example, by turning the adjective “final” into the ersatz verb “finalize.” And standards often evolve over time to accommodate these changes as the new words fall into widespread usage. But not all of these creations become acceptable, and those that do tend to take a long while—sometimes centuries—to get there. The thing you want to avoid is being ahead of the trend because instead of being perceived as a language maverick, you’re more likely to be thought of as unrefined or pretentious. The following errors are the most common when dealing with made-up words.

Irregardless

Don’t Say: We’ll have the meeting irregardless of whether Stuart can attend.
Say Instead: We’ll have the meeting regardless of whether Stuart can attend.

Here’s Why: “Irregardless” is not a word. Somewhere along the line, somebody who didn’t understand what “regardless” meant thought that the negative prefix “ir-” would make the word mean “without regard,” the way you’d turn “relevant” into “irrelevant.” But “regardless” already means “without regard”—that’s the whole reason that “-less” suffix is tacked on to the back end in the first place. Using “irregardless” is a big signal that a speaker is uninformed. Don’t do it.

Authored

Don’t Say: The Senator has authored a new recipe book devoted to cooking and eating crow.
Say Instead: The Senator has written (or published) a new recipe book devoted to cooking and eating crow.

Here’s Why: “Author” is a noun that identifies the person who did the writing—it should not be used as a verb describing the action of writing.

Critiqued

Don’t Say: Did you hear how Lisa critiqued Maureen’s performance?
Say Instead: Did you hear how Lisa criticized (or reviewed) Maureen’s performance?

Here’s Why: This is the same problem we had with “authored.” “Critique” is a noun that shouldn’t be turned into a verb. One explanation for why this happens is that the verb “criticize,” which by definition carries neither positive nor negative connotations, has come to have a negative sense to it—so people turn to “critique” as an alternative. Avoid this.


Gift

Don’t Say: They gifted the university with a million-dollar donation.
Say Instead: They presented the university with a milliondollar donation.

Here’s Why: Again, “gift” is a noun that shouldn’t be turned into a verb. There are obviously a lot of other ways this sentence could have been corrected, including They made a million-dollar donation to the university and They gave a million dollars to the university.